A sight record of Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) from Chavakachcheri - Jaffna

 Glossy Ibis is considered as a rare migrant to the lowland marsh lands, paddy fields, tanks and lagoons. It is restricted to the few wet land areas as small flocks during its winter migration in Sri Lanka. It feeds on worms, crustaceans, aquatic insects, frogs and such other small animals [and also it is said to be partial to water leeches (Henry G.M. 1998)] often as small flocks on shallow water with, head down nodding from side to side. It roosts communally in trees with other water birds. The breeding season is from March to July and it builds a rather small nest with sticks on trees near water usually as colonies. 

Distribution in Sri Lanka

In legge’s time (Last half of the 19^th century) Glossy Ibis was an inhabitant of tank-districts of the country and frequents the many tank edges such as Minery [Minneriya], Kanthelai etc. According to him it was also sometime abundance in the extream north and it was frequently seen on the tidal flats near the Jaffna town and at the mouth of the lake. On the eastern, north and north-western part of the island it inhabited shores of lagoons and estuaries. In Hanbantota district also it was found about the salterns and vicinity of tanks. Legge considered it as merely a resident bird and he believed that what migrants do come to Ceylon [Sri Lanka] probably scatter themselves round the north coast as far as Mullaittivu [Mulathivu] on the east, and perhaps Puttalam [Puttalama] on the west. (Legge W. V. 1880)

In March 1872 Legge found a breeding colony of about eight pairs in company with Open-billedstorks at Uduwila near Tissamaharama on thorny trees growing in the half-dried small tank bed. (Legge W. V. 1880)

While describing its distribution in the island W.E. Wait in 1931 also noted that it is a bird of tanks in the low country and lagoons of the north and east coasts. According to him also it was mainly a resident and commonest in the north where the numbers are probably augmented during the north-east monsoon by migrants (Wait W.E. 1931)

During avifaunal survey of Ceylon conducted jointly by the British and Colombo Museums from 1936 to 1939 Hugh Whistler did not encounter any bird or museum specimen and he described it as a rare resident of low country dry zone except apparently in the south-west from Chilaw to Tangalla, and found in large inland tanks and coastal lagoons. (Whistler H. 1944)

G.M. Henry in 1955 wrote “Nowadays, however, it must be considred – if present in Ceylon at all- as a very rare species in the island. I have never met with it….”.  Henry identified from Legge’s map the location of its 1872 breeding colony mentioned by Legge as Uduwila is actually the Wirawila of Hambantota district. (Henry G.M. 1955)

Considering distribution data of above authors Glossy Ibis is considered as a former breeding resident but become extinct in the island toward the end of 19^th century.  After long silent in 1965 two birds were seen again at Kalametiya and one bird was shot (Henry G.M. , 1988). In the subsequent years it was seen time to time in few locations in the southern part of the country such as Kalametiya, Bellanwila-Attidiya sanctuary, Dehiwela paddy fields etc. during the winter migration season and other times of the year as well.  In 1994/95 migrate season 81 birds were observed at Muthurajawela, and others were seen at Anaivilundawa Ramsar wetland (Henry G.M., 1988).  All of these sight records are considered as birds coming probably from Indian mainland. 

Observation

In a bird watching tour to Chavakachcheri area of Jaffna lagoon on 16^th March 2013 we could observe and photographed more than 20 birds from a pond like water hole in a paddy field (9°38.327'N, 80°08.430'E) about a kilometer distance from Thannikilappu junction of Jaffna – Mannar road (A32) toward Jaffna (See Map 1 and 2). Some birds were feeding and others resting during the observation period of about 10 minutes and our attempt to get a closer picture of them in an open area disturbed them and all of them flew away. Few juvenile birds were also noticed among adults with breeding plumage. 

Map 1

Map 2

Discussion 

According to available published sight records -  after 1968 Glossy Ibis has not been reported from wetland areas of Jaffna peninsula(See Table 1 for all recent published sight records of Glossy Ibis). Most of recent sight records of it after ‘rediscovery’ of mid 20^th century are mainly from Kalamatiya and Aththidiya and other close by wetlands of above two locations such as Bundala, Kotte, Muthurajawela etc. Wilpattu national park, Nawadankulama and Pinkatiya of Puttalam district, Mannar and Giant tank of Mannar district and probably Habarana are only exceptions.  Prevailing civil war situation since 1980s prevented most bird watchers visiting northern bird watching sites and it can be one reason of lacking observations from there.  What made them to revisit Jaffna peninsula again after nearly half a century  Are they breeding again in our lands? Further observation are needed to solve those matters especially in the areas with similar habitats in Jaffna peninsula. 

Published sight records of Glossy Ibis since 1952 are shown in Table 1 mostly base on Ceylon Bird Club notes published in Loris - Journal of Wildlife and Nature protections society of Sri Lanka.

 Table 1 - 

Year	Location	Number of Birds	Reference
1952	C. E. Norris observe it at Kalamatiya		Cameron, R., 1964
1963 September 11 to 16	Kalamatiya	1	Cameron, R., 1964
16th August 1963	Koholankala- Hambantota,	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1974
11th September 1963	Kalamatiya	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1974
19th January 1968	Sarasalai Jaffna	2	Hoffmann, T. W., 1974
2nd October 1969	Dematawila Wilpattu	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1974
1967? Or probably 1968 - January	Two birds appeared once in Jaffna but were not seen again	2	Cameron, R.Mcl.L., 1968
2nd  October 1969	Dematawillu of Wilpattu. Only record for this season	1	Cameron, R.Mcl.L., 1970
1970 – December	Kiula near Kalamatiya	3	Hoffmann, T. W., 1974
9th January 1971	Kiula near Kalamatiya	5	Hoffmann, T. W., 1974
1971 - January	Single bird captured at Kalamatiya, said to be one of 5 seen at Kiulla. 5 also observed in 1969 at the same place	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1974
1973 – Mid December to 1974 - July	At Dehiwela seen regularly.	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1974&  Hoffmann, T. W., 1975
1975  December	Observed at the Dehiwela paddy field.		Anon.,  1977
1976 December	Again seen at Mt. Lavinia		Hoffmann, T. W., 1977
1977 - first week of March	Once again observed at Dehiwela paddy field with full breeding plumage. It was not sighted afterward.		Anon.,  1977
1977 March	In breeding plumage was again sighted in the Dehiwela paddy fields. The last sighting there was in December 1973.	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1978
1978 June	Kalamatiya	2	Hoffmann, T. W., 1979
1980 January	2 at Kalamatiya [Sunil wikramasuriya recapitulates his own sightings at Kalamatiya as – 4 in Jan uary 1971, 2 in September 1978, 2 in January 1980  ]	2	Hoffmann, T. W., 1981
1982  january	10 have been seen regularly at Kalamatiya and continue to be seen at there	10	Hoffmann, T. W., 1983
1982 March	Kalamatiya	13	Hoffmann, T. W., 1983
1983 April	Kalamatiya	4	Hoffmann, T. W., 1984
1985 February	Malala lewaya		Hoffmann, T. W., 1986
1985 – November	Kalamatiya	9	Hoffmann, T. W., 1986
1986 January - December	Kalamatiya	Continued to be observed throughout the year in varying numbers.	Hoffmann, T. W., 1987
1986 - March	Bolgoda lake	3	Hoffmann, T. W., 1987
1986  January	3rd mid-winter waterfowl counted 4 from Tangalla-Ambalantota area.	4	Hoffmann, T. W.,1986a
1986 December	In a paddy field not far from new parliament at Kotte.	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1987
1987 January	Kalamatiya	3	Hoffmann, T. W., 1988
1987January 10/11	4th mid-winter waterfowl census counted 3 from Kalamatiya	3	Hoffmann, T. W., 1987a
1987 July	Bundala	7	Hoffmann, T. W., 1988
1987 September	Kalamatiya	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1988
1987 October	Kalamatiya	5	Hoffmann, T. W., 1988
1988 January	5th waterfowl census recorded no birds		Hoffmann, T. W., 1988a
1989 - January	Not a single bird was reported by 6th  waterfowl ccensus	0	Hoffmann, T. W., 1989
1989 October	At Kotte till December	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1989a
1990	7th annual waterfowl census in 1990 observed 5 glossy ibis after interval of several years in the south at Bundala.	5	Hoffmann, T. W., 1990
1990 October	Bellanwila	Initially only single bird and number increased to 4 and eventually to 8.  Never have so many been recorded from Colombo area.	Hoffmann, T. W., 1991
1990 December	7 at Kalamatiya, continue in the Bellanwila-Attidiya	7	Hoffmann, T. W., 1991
1991	8th waterfowl census reported 6 birds at Bellanwila and 5 at Kalamatiya	11	Hoffmann, T. W., 1991a
1991 January	Kalamatiya	5	Hoffmann, T. W., 1992
1991 February	6 bird still at Bellanwila since October 1990	6	Hoffmann, T. W., 1992
1991 September	Attidiya		Hoffmann, T. W., 1992
1993	10th waterfowl census recorded 26 birds	26	Hoffmann, T. W., 1993
1993 January	15 at Attidiya in some numbers present throughout the winter month till April. 11 at Kalamatiya.	26	Hoffmann, T. W., 1994
1993 September	Returned to Bellanwila	15	Hoffmann, T. W., 1994
1993 November	Flock at Bellanwila  increased to 34	34	Hoffmann, T. W., 1994
1993 July	Pinkattiya tank Battalu oya	11	Hoffmann, T. W., 1994
1994 January - March	Noted throughout the winter at Bellanwila and  in paddy fields in wider vicinity as well as at Muthurajawela at Ja-Ela, where as many as 83 birds were present from January to March	83+	Hoffmann, T. W., 1995
1994 - Second half of January	37 birds were counted during 11th  waterfowl census.	37	Hoffmann, T. W., 1994a
1994 Sep	Boralesgamuwa  [first arrival of the season]	5	Hoffmann, T. W., 1995
1995 January	Kalamatiya	13	Hoffmann, T. W., 1996
1995 September	Bellanwila	7	Hoffmann, T. W., 1996
1995 October	Bundala	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1996
1995 December	Bellanwila	In varying numbers (Maximum 38)	Hoffmann, T. W., 1996
1995 December	Kalametiya	2	Hoffmann, T. W., 1996
1996  January	13th annual waterfowl census counted 18 birds	18	Hoffmann, T. W., 1996a
1996 January	Kalamatiya	7	Hoffmann, T. W., 1997
1996 February	Thalangama	24	Hoffmann, T. W., 1997
1996 October	Attidiya	22	Hoffmann, T. W., 1997
1996 December	Bellanwila	48	Hoffmann, T. W., 1997
1997 February	Bellanwila	5	Hoffmann, T. W., 1999
1997 July	Habarana	1	Hoffmann, T. W., 1999
1999 January	5 at Mirijjawila and another 5 at Lunama.	10	Warakagoda, D., 2000
2000 – From first week of January to the first week of February	17th waterfowl census cnducted of 2000 counted only 2.	2	Gunawardena, K., 2000
2000 January	Kalamatiya		Senanayake, N., 2001
2000 November	Borelasgamuwa	15	Senanayake, N., 2001
2000 December	Over Nugegoda	1	Senanayake, N., 2001
2001 December	Weligatta	16	Siriwardana, U., 2002
2002 – Mid January to mid February	Observed in the 19th waterfowl census		Siriwardana, U., 2002a
2002 January	Kalamatiya	14	Siriwardana, U., 2003
2002 February	Mannar		Siriwardana, U., 2003
2002 September	2 at Nawadankulama and 2 at Bellanwila	4	Siriwardana, U., 2003
2002 November	Hungama		Siriwardana, U., 2003
2002 December	Kalamatiya		Siriwardana, U., 2003
2003 – Mid January to Mid February	Observed during 2003 waterbird census		Siriwardana, U., 2003a
2003 January	Hungama	8-10	Warakagoda, D., 2004
2003 February	Debarawewa		Warakagoda, D., 2004
2003 May	Giant tank	30-40	Warakagoda, D., 2004
2004 - Mid January to late February	Reported from Kalamatiya and Mannar during the 2004 waterbird census.		Siriwardana, U., 2004
2004 January	Giant tank	3	Siriwardana, U., 2005
2004 February	Hungama	9	Siriwardana, U., 2005
2004 December	Borelasgamuwa	c.25	Siriwardana, U., 2005
2005 February	Bundala National Park		Siriwardana, U. & Warakagoda D
2005 October	Thalangama wetland	7	Siriwardana, U. & Warakagoda D
2006 September	Pillewa	6	Siriwardana, U., 2007
2012 July 8	Embilikala, Bundala	59	http://www.ceylonbirdclub.org/the_ceylon_bird_club_news.php

References and Bibliography

Anon., 1977 The Glossy Ibis Loris 14 (4) 243
Cameron, R.., 1964 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club. June, 1963 to March, 1964 Loris 10 (1), 
71-72

Cameron, R.Mcl.L., 1968 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club - 1967/68. Loris.11(3):153-154.

Cameron, R.Mcl.L., 1970 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club -1969/70 Loris 12 (1), 62-63

Gunawardena, K., 2000 The 2000 waterfowl census in Sri Lanka Loris, 22 (4), 25-26.            

Hoffmann, T. W., 1974. Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club 1970-1973. Loris, 13(4), 211-214.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1975. Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club, 1974. Loris, 13(5), 275-276.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1977 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club 1976 Loris 14 (3) 154 - 156

Hoffmann, T. W., 1978 Bird Club Notes. Loris, 14 (5), 289-290.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1979 Note from the Ceylon Bird club 1978. Loris, 15 (1), 6-8.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1981 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club 1980. Loris, 15 (5), 283-284,292.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1983 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club – 1982 Loris 16 (3), 132-134

Hoffmann, T. W., 1984 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club 1983. Loris, 16 (6), 299-301.

Hoffmann, T. W. (1986). Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club 1985. Loris, 17(3), 99-101.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1986a  The 3^rd Mid-winter waterfwl (Duck) count in Sri Lanka (January 1986) Loris 17 (4), 142-144

Hoffmann, T. W., 1987 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club 1986. Loris, 17 (5), 209-210

Hoffmann, T. W., 1987a The fourth mid-winter waterfowl census in Sri Lanka (January -1987) Loris 17 (6) 233 - 235

Hoffmann, T. W., 1988a The 5^th waterfowl census in Sri Lanka (January 1988) Loris 18 (2) 80-82

Hoffmann, T. W., 1989 The 1989 Waterfowl Census in Sri Lanka. Loris, 18 (4), 160-164.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1989a  The Ceylon Bird Club A brief avifaunal survey – 1989 Lors 18 (3), 129-131

Hoffmann, T. W., 1990 The 1990 Waterfowl census in Sri Lanka. Loris, 19 (1), 38-41.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1991. Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club, 1990. Loris, 19 (3), 103-105

Hoffmann, T. W., 1991a 1991 Waterfowl censud in Sri Lanka Loris 19 (4), 147-152

Hoffmann, T. W., 1992 Notes from the Ceylon Bird Club, 1991 Loris 19 (5), 171 - 173

Hoffmann, T. W., 1993 The 1993 Waterfowl census in Sri Lanka. Loris 20 (2), 49-51

Hoffmann, T. W., 1994 Bird Club Notes, 1993. Loris, 20 (3), 107-109

Hoffmann, T. W., 1994a The 1994 Waterfowl census in Sri Lanka Loris 20 (4) 180-184

Hoffmann, T. W., 1995 Bird Club notes, 1994 Loris, 20 (5), 226-228.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1996 Ceylon Bird Club Notes 1995. Loris, 21 (1), 16-18.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1996a The 1996 Waterfowl census in Sri Lanka Loris 21(2) 42-44

Hoffmann, T. W., 1997 Ceylon Bird Club Notes 1996. Loris, 21 (3), 112-113.

Hoffmann, T. W., 1999 Ceylon Bird Club notes, 1997 Loris 22 (1), 57-58.

Senanayake, N., 2001 Report from the Ceylon Bird Club for 2000. Loris, 22 (5), 43-44

Siriwardana, U., 2002 Report from the Ceylon Bird Club for 2001. Loris, 23 (1&2), 36-40

Siriwardana, U., 2002a The 2001 Waterbird census of Sri Lanka 23 (1&2), 40-41

Siriwardana, U., 2003 Report from the Ceylon Bird Club for 2002 Loris, 23 (3&4) 36-39

Siriwardana, U., 2003a The 2003 Waterbird Census in Sri Lanka. Loris, 23 (3&4), 32-35

Siriwardana, U., 2004 The 2004 Waterbird census in Sri Lanka Loris, 23 (5&6), 42-43

Siriwardana, U., 2005 Report from the Ceylon Bird Club for 2004 Loris 24 (1&2), 33-35

Siriwardana, U. & Warakagoda D., 2006 Report from the Ceylon Bird Club for 2005 Loris 24 (3&4) 24-28

Siriwardana, U., 2007 Report of the Ceylon Bird Club 2006 Loris, 24 (5 & 6), 50-56

Warakagoda, D., 2000 Report from the Ceylon Bird Club for 1999. Loris, 22 (4), 23-25.

Warakagoda, D., 2004 Report from the Ceylon Bird Club for 2003 Loris, 23 (5&6), 37-41

Harrison, J. 2011. A Field Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka. (2nd edition). New York:Oxford University Press.

Henry G.M.  1998 A Guide to the birds of Sri Lanka. (3rd edition). Delhi:Oxford University Press.

Kotagama, S., Ratnavira, G. 2010. An illustrated Guide to the Birds of Sri Lanka. Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka, Colombo.

Legge 1880 A History of the birds of Ceylon 1983 second edition. Tisara Publishers.

Wait, W.E. 1931 Manual of the Birds of Ceylon. 2nd edition. Colombo: Colombo museum.

Warakagoda, D., Inskipp, C., Inskipp, T. & Grimmett, R. 2012. Helm Field Guides - Birds of Sri Lanka. Christopher Helm, London.

Whistler, H. 1944 The Avifaunal survey of Ceylon conducted jointly by the British and Colombo museums, Checklist of the Birds of Sri Lanka Spolia Zeylanica 23: 119-321

සිංහලෙන් කියවන්න >>

Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus)

A rather common breeding resident (race seebohmi) found in dry lowlands are supplemented by an uncommon winter migrant of the race curonicus to the both dry and wet lowlands. It can be observed in lagoons, large tanks, mudflats, marshes and sea coast in pairs or as small flocks, often with other waders.  Kentish Plover is very active bird and when feeding it runs here and their, stop only to pick up insects which consists of its main food. The breeding season is from March to April and 2-3 eggs are laid in a depression on short grass near water.

සිංහලෙන් කියවන්න >>

Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva)

Common winter migrant to the lowland lagoons, marshes, grasslands adjoining large water bodies, mudflats, dry paddy fields etc. It is much common in dry zone. It lives as small to large flocks. Its food mainly consists of insects like grasshoppers, beetles etc. crustacean and worms. It feeds on typical plover habit of often run a short distance, pause and peck.

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Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica)

A rare winter migrant to the northern dry coastal areas such as lagoons, mudflats, estuaries etc. Occasionally some birds can be seen in southern coastal areas as well. In its non-breeding plumage Bar-tailed Godwit is very similar to the Black-tailed Godwit but can be distinguished from it by black and white barred tail (Tail is complete black of Black-tailed Godwit ) and more up-turned bill. It feeds wading in shallow water on worms, crabs, and other small aquatic animals, mostly as solitary individuals or as small flocks.

Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia)

A common winter migrant to the low country coastal areas. Commonest in the dry zone lagoons  tanks, salterns and estuaries. Rare and local in the wet lowlands. It is mostly a solitary bird though sometime scattered flocks are not unusual in water edges or sometime in deeper water probing the mud and picking up small aquatic animals such as crabs, worms, insects and mollusks. 

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Marsh Sandpiper (Tringa stagnatilis)

Common winter migrant to the lowlands. Mostly to the dry zone coastal areas such as lagoons, estuaries, mangroves, salt-pans, and sometime inland marshes, large tanks and flooded paddy fields. When feeding it keeps singly or in small or large flocks. Marsh Sandpiper feeds on small aquatic animals such as crabs, prawns, worms etc. It has a very fast flight and also can swim well. 

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Wood Sandpiper(Tringa glareola)

Common migrant to the coastal areas, lagoons, mudflats, marshes, tanks and paddy fields in the dry lowlands. Occasionally found in the hill country and wet lowlands. Unlike most other migrant waders Wood Sandpiper prefers freshwater bodies. It feeds on small aquatic insects, such as beetles, bugs, larvae, etc. usually as solitary birds or as small to large flocks.

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Gull-billed Tern (Gelochelidon nilotica)

Common winter migrant to lagoons, estuaries, sand spits, salterns and large tanks of dry coastal areas. Scarce in wet coastal areas and inland wetlands. Also summer loiterer. It is also believed that possible breeding may occurs on Adam’s Bridge islets. It flies usually low over the water surface solitary or in small scattered flocks, every now and then dipping to catch water insects, fish, frogs, crabs, prawns etc. When not feeding it rests on sand banks often with other terns. Gull-billed Tern nests as colonies on sand banks on the shores of lagoons or sandy islets. Breeding season is from April to June.  

හික් මීයා/කුනු මීයා[Hik Meeya/Kunu Meeya]/Common Musk Shrew/House Shrew (Suncus murinus)

Common Musk Shrew is the most common, widespread and also largest of the ten species of shrews in Sri Lanka. It inhabits houses even in large cities throughout the island as well as some of the off-shore islets (Phillips W.W.A. 1980). During the day time it hides in crevices of walls, boxes, piles of goods and emerges in the evening. It is a nocturnal animal and it is said that because of its high metabolic rate shrew eat its own body weight of food in the course of a night. House Shrew is a carnivores animal and it preys on geckos, worms, scorpions  insects [ex: cockroaches], spiders and even small mammals - sometime bigger than its own size - like mice, frogs and snakes. It also eats grains such as rice and fruits when others foods are scarce. It is believed that House Shrew is not indigenous to the Sri Lanka and has been imported many years ago with goods from Indian port cities (Phillips W.W.A. 1980). House Shrew is an animal beneficial to the man since it preys upon most noxious animal live in houses and also driving away rodents.

Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus)

Common Kestrel occurs as two sub species in the island. European Kestrel or race tinnunculus is an uncommon winter migrant to the open country, forests and scrub lands of all climatic zones while Indian Kestrel or race objurgatus is a scarce breeding resident in the hills. According to the Dr Sarath Kotagama race interstinctus or Eastern Kestrel is also occurs as an uncommon migrant to the all zones of the island (Kotagama S. & Rathnavira G. 2010). Common Kestrel feeds mainly on lizards and insects like grasshoppers. It also preys on nestlings of ground-nesting birds, whenever it can find them (Henry G.M. 1998). The breeding season of the resident race is from March to June and it is said that it doesn't build a nest but deposits 2- 3 eggs on a ledge of rock on the face of an inaccessible cliff. While its staying in the country Common Kestrel is mostly a solitary bird and can be seen frequently hovering or perching on high branches in search of small animals to prey on with its keen eyes. 

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Black Drongo/කළු කවුඩා[Kalu Kavuda] (Dicrurus macrocercus)

Locally common breeding resident in north and north-western dry lowlands of the country. Uncommon in north-central area and occasionally some birds are reported in southern parts during the winter migration period (Warakagoda D. et. al., 2012).  It inhabits open areas, forests and scrub lands usually as solitary birds or in pairs. Black Drongo feeds on flying insects, sallying forth from a fence, branch of a tree, telephone or power line, or any other such vantage point.  Like other drongos Black Drongo also mimics calls of varies other birds, cat etc. The breeding season is from March to May and it makes a cup shape nest with fine twigs, fibers  and cobwebs and placed it in a fork of a tree often in very exposed situations. Black Drongo can be distinguished easily from other drongoes by all black body and pale spot at base of the bill.

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නිල් අඬණහිරිය/යක්බේරිය[Nil-andana-hiriya]/Yak-bairiye/Blue rattlesnake (Crotalaria verrucosa)

An indigenous very common herb of about 1m tall grows along roadsides and waste lands of both wet and dry lowlands.

Small Cupid (Chilades parrhasius nila)

Small Cupid is an uncommon butterfly confined to the northern dry zone of the island.  It can be easily confused with the superficially similar Plain Cupid. But Plain Cupid (30mm) is larger than Small Cupid (20mm) and restricted to the wet zone of the island where latter does not fly. Its larva feeds on tender leaves of  Acacia eburnea (කුකුල් කටු/ගිනි අන්දර/Cockspur Thorn), Acacia leucophloea(මහ අන්දර/කටු අන්දර) and Acacia planifrons.

විෂ්නුක්‍රාන්ති[Vishnu-kranti]/Little Glory/Dwarf morning Glory (Evolvulus alsinoides)

A trailing herb common in open areas, sandy grounds, roadsides, beaches and cultivated fields in almost any dry site but much more abundant in the dry zone. The plant is native to tropical America and introduced to the island in some unknown period of the history. However it is widely used in Ayurvedic medicine to cure almost anything from depression to dysentery (Flora of Ceylon Vol 1 1980)

Gram Blue (Euchysops cnejus)

An uncommon butterfly found in intermediate and dry zones of the Sri Lanka. However it is more plentiful in the north of the island. According to the Woodhouse it is to be found, chiefly in February, March and May in the dry zone, particularly the north of the island (Woodhouse LG.O., 1950). Ormiston noted that it is frequently a serious pest to the gram crops in South India (Ormiston W.,  1924). Hence its vernacular name. However according to the de’Abrera it has yet to prove so in Sri Lanka (de’Abrera B., 1998 ). Gram Blue is subject to considerable seasonal variation in size and the intensity of blue on its wings.  Its larva attended by ants and feeds on various plants of the family Fabaceae such as Macroptilium lathyroides (Wild bushbean), Neustanthus phaseoloides, Vigna marina, Vigna trilobata, Vigna unguiculata (මෑ කරල්/ ලී මෑ/වඳුරු මෑ/Black-eye Bean/Cowpea), Vigna radiata (මුං/මුං ඇට/බූ මෑ/Green gram/Jerusalem pea/Mung bean), Vigna mungo (බූ මෑ/මුං/උළුඳු/Black gram), Abrus precatorius (ඔළිඳ/Crab's Eyes/Indian Liquorice) and Canavalia rosea.

වෙල් තිබ්බටු[Wel-tibatu] (Solanum trilobatum)

An uncommon indigenous slender prickly scrambling shrub grows in northern dry lowlands. Flowering during the rainy season. The fruits are edible and whole plant is used in Ayurvedic medicine. According to the Flora of Ceylon (Vol 6 page 382) “The lack of recently collected materials may indicate that it is decreasing in occurrence”

කකුළු ඔලෙවියා[Kakulu Olewiya]/Crab-plover (Dromas ardeola)

Rare and local breeding resident bird found in beaches, lagoons, estuaries, sandbanks and coral reefs on the north and north-western coast. Occasionally found in other dry coastal areas. It lives in solitary, in pairs or as small flocks. Its main food consists of crabs and probably other small marine animals such as sand-worms and molluscs captures while wading or waking along tide-marks of the seashore or in the shallow water of lagoons. The breeding season is from May to June and it dig a tunnel of 2-4 feet long into sand bank beside a beach and at the end hollow out a small chamber in which it lays a single egg. 

මහ යක්වැනැස්ස[aha-yakwanassa]/ Lion’s ear (Leonotis nepetifolia)

Maha-yakwanassa is an indigenous locally common herb in waste places, roadsides etc. in dry and intermediate zones from lowlands to about 400m. Flowering from November to June. 

Sociable Glider (Tramea limbata)

Common dragonfly found in marshes, tanks, ponds etc. in both wet and dry zone lowlands. 

Baya Weaver/රුක් වඩු කුරුල්ලා[Ruk Wadu Kurulla] (Ploceus philippinus)

Common resident bird in the reed beds, paddy fields and marshy areas of the dry lowlands while local and uncommon in wet lowlands. It lives as large flocks. Baya weaver feeds on cultivated grains such as rice, Kurakkan, etc. and varies others seeds. It also takes insects to some extent. It breeds throughout the year in colonies. Male bird builds long pendulous nest usually overhanging the water.  Number of nests usually builds in a single tree where female bird lays 2-4 white eggs. 

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මූකලන් කොට්ටෝරුවා[Mookalan Kottoruwa]/Yellow-fronted Barbet (Megalaima rubricapillus)

Locally common endemic bird of forests and well wooded gardens from wet lowlands to mid hills.  Also occurs but scarce in eastern foothills and higher hills. Yellow-fronted Barbet feeds mainly on fruits. The breeding season is from February to May and again from August to September though occasional nests sometimes found at other months of the year.  It lays two or three white eggs in a hole of a soft-wooded dead stem or branch of a tree pecked out by birds themselves.

Grass Jewel (Freyeria trochilus)

Grass Jewel is one of the smallest butterfly of the island common in grasslands and open areas in lowlands up to about 300 m. Its larva feeds on  Indigofera linnaei (බිං අවරි), Indigofera oblongifolia, Indigofera tinctoria (නිල් අවරි) and probably on Indigofera colutea.

  

ගම් කපුටා/කලු කපුටා [Kalu Kaputa/Gam Kaputa]/Jungle Crow/Large-billed Crow (Corvus levaillantii)

Very common resident bird throughout the country while relatively uncommon in urban areas where House crow is abundant. It usually encounters as pairs or sometime as small flocks. Unlike House crow, Jungle crow is less dependent on man and sometime found in jungle areas remote from human habitations. Its food consists of both animal and vegetables subtances and also scavenges on carrions and human wastes. It place its nest which is a heap of twigs in a tall tree during April to September and lays 3-4 eggs.  

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Asian Brown Flycatcher (Muscicapa dauurica)

Very common winter migrant to gardens, plantations and open wooded areas from lowlands to mid hills. It is frequent in shaded locations with trees. Sometimes even in densely populated cities as long as such habitats available.  Asian Brown Flycatcher is superficially similar to another migrant Brown-breasted Flycatcher but can be easily distinguished by the dark grey color legs of this while it is flesh-color of the latter. While in Sri Lanka it is mostly solitary bird and can be seen usually darting after small flying insects from a twig of a tree and often return back to the same perch or to a neighboring one with the captured prey on its bill, since it is very attached to its territory . 

Mottled Emigrant/African Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe minna)

Common butterfly found in gardens and open areas, especially in lowlands and up to about 500m. It is a migratory species and during the migratory season (North East Monsoon period) it can be seen in all elevations of the island usually as swarms. It often use to settles on the underside of leaves so that it is difficult to distinguished it from the foliage. Also sometimes settles in swarms on damp earth to absorb minerals. It is now generally accepted that former African Emigrant (Catopsilia florella) is conspecific with C. pyranthe. Its larval host plants are  Senna sophera, Cassia fistula (ඇහැළ/Indian Laburnum/

Shower of Gold), Cassia roxburghii (රතු වා/Ceylon cassia/Red cassia), Senna alata (රට තෝර/Candle bush/Candle stick/Rinworm shrub), Senna auriculata (රණවරා/Matara Tea/Tanner's Cassia)

Senna didymobotrya (රට තෝර), Senna hirsuta (Stinking Cassia), Senna occidentalis (පැණි තෝර/Coffee Senna/Coffee Weed), Senna surattensis (Scrambled-egg-tree), and Senna tora (පෙති තෝර/Pot Cassia/Sickle Senna)

වලිකුකුලා[Wali-Kukula]/Sri Lanka Junglefowl (Gallus lafayetii)

Fairly common endemic bird found in forests and dense scrubs from low lands to higher hills. Junglefowl keeps in pairs or small groups mainly inhabiting on ground and flying up to a tree when threatened. It roosts high in trees during night solitarily or in small groups. It’s food mainly consist of grain,  berries, leaves and buds as well as small insects such as grasshoppers, termites etc. Junglefowl 's  main breeding season is from December to April and probably again from August to September. The nest is a scrape in ground beneath a tree, beside a dead log or on a pile of vegetation.

දුම්මැල්ල/කුනුමැල්ල/පතෝල[Dum-mella/Kunu-mella/Pathola]/Snake Gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina)

Common indigenous climbing herb grows in low country, mainly in dry zone. Trichosanthes anguina (Snake Gourd/Pathola) - cited as synonymy of T. cucumerina -  is a common cultivated vegetable with much larger fruits. 

Pale-billed Flowerpecker/පිළිලිච්චා/ලාතුඩු පිළිලිච්චා [Pililichcha/Latudu Pililichcha] (Dicaeum erythrorhynchos)

Very common breeding resident found all over the Sri Lanka. Pale-billed Flowerpecker is the smallest bird of the island which frequents the canopy of tall trees and gardens, feeding on juicy fruits of many kinds while parasitic Loranthus species (Pilila) being its favorites  This bird helps to spread sticky seeds of Loranthus  by adhering them to the branches of trees. Beside fruits it also eats many small insects and spiders. The breeding season lasts from January to August and it build a nest – a small bag of cotton and fibers slung from a twig high up in a tree- placed among large leaves where it lays two white eggs. 

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Mussaenda erythrophylla

Mussaenda erythrophylla is an erect shrub introduced as an ornamental plant and widely cultivated in home gardens. It is said to have originated in the Congo. Its pinkish sepals are more prominent than small yellow flowers (insert)

Barred Buttonquail (Turnix suscitator)

Common breeding resident in grasslands, scrublands and paddy fields in low country dry zone. Usually seen as pairs or solitary birds. Also not uncommon in suitable habitats in wet zone and hills like in tea plantation. It feeds on seeds, termites etc. picking up from the ground usually in the morning and evening. In this bird, the normal role of the sexes is reversed and female courts males uttering long purring call and she also practices polyandry. Having laid 2 to 4 eggs in a nest compose of dry grass, rootlets etc. in a hollow at the base of a small shrub, she leaves while her mate incubate them and bring up the chicks. The breeding season last for most of the year but most likely months are January to March and again July to August of the year. 

Brazil pusley/Mexican clover (Richardia brasiliensis)

Perennial prostrate herb native to Brazil, introduced and now very common weed along roadsides and in plantations and gardens from lowlands to the hills. It can be easily distinguished from all other similar small white flower plants by its 6 lobes corolla, since all other small white flowers in Sri Lanka have 4 or 5 corolla lobes. 

Commander (Moduza procris)

Common butterfly flies from lowlands to about 1500m. However it is much common in the hills from 500m to 1200m especially near rivers and streams in wooded areas and on jungle paths. Commander takes part in migrations and it is extremely swift in plight. It occasionally settles on wet patches on the road to absorb minerals. Its larva feeds on Mussaenda samana, Mitragyna tubulosa, Mitragyna parvifolia (හැළඹ), Mussaenda frondosa (මුස්සැන්ද/වෙල්-බුත්සරණ), Timonius flavescens, Uncaria elliptica, and Wendlandia bicuspidata (රාවන් ඉදල/වන ඉදල/රත් වැනිදල). Apart from that egg laying only was also observed on Gaertnera vaginans (පේර තඹල).

Firecracker flower (Crossandra infundibuliformis)

An indigenous common herb found in the shade of shrubs close to watercourses from lowlands to mid hills. Also planted in home gardens as an ornamental plant. Flowering throughout the year.

Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea)

A common breeding resident of dry lowland marshes, lagoons, tanks, mangroves and estuaries. Rare in wet lowlands and hills. It feeds on fish usually as solitary birds but at times as large flocks when fish density is high in an area. Grey Heron is more active during dawn and dusk. Its breeding season lasts from December to April and builds a nest – a large mass of sticks – placed among the branches of a tree growing in shallow water usually with other water birds known as heronries.

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Dopatrium nudicaule

 An indigenous herb grows among short grasses in wet places in the lowlands and wet hills up to about 500 m. Common on wet rocky surfaces and sometime also found in paddy fields. Flowering from November to July.

Peacock Royal (Tajuria cippus)

Common butterfly found from lowlands to about 1000 m above sea level throughout the year, but more visible in the center and north of the island. Its larva feeds on Dendrophthoe falcata, Dendrophthoe ligulata, Taxillus cuneatus and Scurrula cordifolia of the family Loranthaceae.

Pink Skimmer (Orthetrum pruinosum neglectum)

Very common dragonfly found in weedy tanks, marsh lands, paddy fields and streams from lowlands to the hills. 

රතු දෙමලිච්චා[Rathu Demalichcha]/Orange-billed babbler ( Turdoides rufescens)

Orange-billed babbler is a locally common endemic bird found in wet lowland and adjoining hill country forest areas. It lives as flocks of 7-10 individuals or more and also a regular species in ‘mixed feeding flocks’. It feeds on insects and also jungle berries, fluttering from tree to tree in lower foliage of trees and understorey of the forest. Little information available on its nesting habitats and breeding season is said to be from January to May and grass cup nest well hidden among creepers or bush and deep greenish eggs resembles Orange-billed babbler’s nest and eggs and difficult to distinguished.

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Common Evening Brown (Melanitis leda)

Very common butterfly found all over the island. It has a crepuscular habit and can be seen on the wing at dawn and dusk, though sometime active even day time in shady places. Under side of wings vary with season and wet season form is much darker than dry season form as shown in above figures. Common Evening Brown larva feeds by night on varies type of grasses [Arundo donax,  Eleusine indica (බැල තණ/වල්මල් කුරක්කන්/Goose Grass), Cenchrus ciliaris, Imperata cylindrica (ඉලුක්/Blady Grass/Spear Grass/Cogon Grass), Ischaemum timorense  Leersia hexandra (ලෙව්/Bareet Grass), Panicum maximum(ගිනි තණ/Guinea grass) Setaria barbata ] and paddy (Oryza sativa) of the family Poaceae. Its larva also fed on Carpet grass/පොටු තණකොළ (Axonopus compressus) only when offered in the lab.

කොන්ඩ කුරුල්ලා[Konda kurulla]/Red-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer)

Very common breeding resident occurs in home gardens, cultivation  forest edges and scrub lands throughout the country but avoids deep forests. Red-vented Bulbul lives as pairs but some time gathered as small flocks. Its main food consist of varies berries and insects. It is a prolific bird which breeds several times of the year while main breeding seasons are from March to May and again August to September. The nest is a cup made up of small twigs, fibers, rootlets bound together by cobwebs where it lays 2-3 eggs.

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Marsh Dancer (Onychargia atrocyana)

An uncommon damselfly found in surrounding vegetation of paddy fields, tank edges etc. in wet zone lowlands and lower hills.

ඇපල/කපු කිනිස්ස[Epala/Kapu-Kinissa] (Triumfetta pentandra)

An indigenous herb common in grasslands and roadsides of dry and arid zones. 

කවුඩා[Kawuda]/White-bellied Drongo(Dicrurus caerulescens)

Common breeding resident from lowlands to mid hills. It occurs as two races D.c. insularis (White-bellied Drongo) is the dry zone form which is common in dry lowlands and drier hills and D.c.leucopygialis (White-vented Drongo) common in wet zone and near by hills. It inhabits well wooded country, tea and rubber plantations, and home gardens but avoids deep forests. White-bellied Drongo lives as solitary birds or as pairs. It feeds on flying insects catching on wing from sallying out a fence post or telegraph wire probably to come back to same perch with its catch. It has a habit of imitating other birds such as Shikra, Magpie- robin etc. and mewing of the cat. It breeds from February to March.

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Three-spot Grass Yellow (Eurema blanda silhetana)

Three-spot Grass Yellow is a very common insect found in the low country wet zone and hills while becoming rare towards the North of the country. The larva feeds on Archidendron clypearia subsp. subcoriaceum (මිමිණි මාර), Entada zeylanica, Albizia chinensis, Albizia lebbeck, Albizia odoratissima, Archidendron bigeminum (කලටිය), Caesalpinia bonduc (කුඹුරු/කුඹුරු වැල්/කළු වවුලැටිය/Grey Nicker), Caesalpinia hymenocarpa, Cassia fistula (ඇහැළ/Indian Laburnum/Shower of Gold), Entada rheedei (පුස් වැල්), Falcataria moluccana, Senna alata (රට තෝර/Candle bush/Candle stick/Rinworm shrub), Senna surattensis (Scrambled-egg-tree), Calliandra surinamensis and Acacia decurrens of family Fabaceae.